Korean J Health Promot > Volume 22(2); 2022 > Article |
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Study | Title | Participants | Data collection | Design, analysis method | Reference of establishing rigour |
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Lhamo [19] (2011) | Health, ethics and GNH-A qualitative study of vegetarian motivations | 25 vegetarians | Questionnaire through email, follow-up in-depth interviews | No description, the matic analysis using phenomenographic techniques [47] | N/A |
Greenebaum [20] (2012) | Managing impressions: “face-saving” strategies of vegetarians and vegans | 18 vegans, 7 vegetarians, 1 raw food vegan (n=26) | Face-to-face interview, phone interviews [48] | Grounded theory, inductive approach [49] | N/A |
Greenebaum [21] (2012) | Veganism, identity and the quest for authenticity | 16 vegans | In-depth interviews, face-to-face or phone interviews | No description, standard coding system | N/A |
Edwards [22] (2013) | Living in a minority food culture: a phenomenological investigation of being vegetarian/vegan | Vegan and vegetarian (n=2) | In-depth interviews, personal experiences as a vegetarian | Phenomenology | N/A |
Parks and Evans [23] (2014) | Dietary identities in higher education: attracting and accommodating vegetarian and vegan students | Vegan and vegetarian students (n=6) | Asked via email to complete two in-person interviews | Phenomenology used in first interview, [50] grounded theory used in second [49] | Member checks |
Shapiro [24] (2015) | “I am a vegetarian”: reflections on a way of being | 1 vegetarian author | Author’s reflection on (dialogue with) empirical findings and published personal accounts, interviews, and case studies | Descriptive empirical phenomenology, [51] lifeworld approach, [52] reflection with dialogue | N/A |
Mycek [25] (2018) | Meatless meals and masculinity: how veg* men explain their plant-based diets | Vegan and vegetarian men (n=20) | Face-to-face interviews | Inductive, grounded theory approach | N/A |
Costa et al. [26] (2019) | “More than a diet”: a qualitative investigation of young vegan women's relationship to food | 10 vegan women | Semi-structured interviews | Phenomenology, interpretative phenomenological analysis [53] | N/A |
Antonovici and Turliuc [27] (2020) | A qualitative study of health-related beliefs and practices among vegetarians | 20 vegetarians | Semi-structured, face-to-face interview, questionnaire | No description using Tropes text analysis software (v. 8.2) and SPSS software (v. 24.0) | N/A |
Buttny and Kinefuchi [28] (2020) | Vegans’ problem stories: negotiating vegan identity in dealing with omnivores | Vegans and vegetarian (n=7) | Focus group interviews | Narratives using discursive constructionism, discursive analysis and critical discourse analysis [54] | N/A |
Delia [29] (2021) | A vegetarian educator in a meat obsessed country | 1 vegetarian author | Reflecting on personal experiences, conversations, headnotes | Autoethnography, transcribing and manually coding. Creating a thematic map and grouping similar concepts [55] | N/A |
Aavik and Velgan [30] (2021) | Vegan men's food and health practices: a recipe for a more health-conscious masculinity? | 61 vegan males | Qualitative narrative interviews | Narrative qualitative, qualitative thematic analysis [56] | N/A |
Meaning | Themes | Citations |
---|---|---|
Health benefits | Realizing the health hazards of eating meat | “I realized that eating animal products is a health risk for me. ... I looked at the causes of death in my family: cancer and heart disease. And then I realized that this risk is very important for all of us. It is totally irresponsible to consume meat in such quantities.” [30] |
“the illness is related to a high fat and high cholesterol diet, so I decided to stop eating meat and I began to realize that there were other benefits both for myself and animals and the environment” [24] | ||
“Finding a strong link between the acquisition of antibiotic resistance and increased meat consumption gave reasonable justification to share my dietary choice to avoid meat and its by-products.” [29] | ||
Science-based approach to nutrition in the vegetarian diet | “I have spent countless hours reading about nutrition and different ingredients.” [30] | |
“…for the protein question I think it's pretty scientifically evident that vegetables have protein.” [25] | ||
“With a health and microbiology background, I feel my teaching is more research-based than coming from an ethical or animal justice standpoint” [29] | ||
Environmental benefits | Want to reduce environmental impact | The main reason behind her vegan lifestyle is environmental. She stands by the idea of living a more sustainable life and leaving a minimal footprint. [26] |
“I started being more interested in environmental issues and I realized that my diet could have a lot of effects on the environment.… I realized I had to at least do something to like walk the walk or whatever, so that's what I did.” [25] | ||
Ethical obligation | Feeling connected to other living things | “I am a person who feels a strong connection to other living things.” [24] |
She explains that eating meat has become too uncomfortable for her because the pain of thinking about eating what was once a live animal is too great. [22] | ||
“Vegan is the word that I'm going to protect with everything I have to keep that a belief and a topic and a label that says, you don't eat meat, you don't wear animals; that you live in a connected way to the world around you” [21] | ||
Thinking of vegetarianism for health as selfish | “I have this sort of like bad attitude to like health veganism. I didn’t like these sort of like selfish reasons like health reasons.” [30] | |
“I really do think focusing on “go vegan or at least partly vegan, for your health” rather than the ethical component of it, is a big mistake.” [21] | ||
“If you are a health vegan, you're selfish” [21] | ||
Feeling emotions | “… probably born with a greater level of compassion than other people.” [19] | |
“I knew inside I had a feeling, it felt wrong and I wanted to change [emphasis added].” [25] |
Meaning | Themes | Citations |
---|---|---|
Feel healthy | Feeling good for physical health | “I had a blood test three months ago and my blood count was perfect, I wasn't low in iron or b12 and I know for a fact that I get enough protein” [26] |
“...certain affections that no longer occurred after following a vegetarian diet (e.g., digestive or skin issues, dizziness, gynecological issues).” [27] | ||
“I'm really proud of that. I don’t take any medications for anything. And I don’t need it. I don't have any cancer or diabetes or heart disease. I’m really pretty healthy.” [21] | ||
Feeling good for mental health | “By not eating meat I feel so good mentally and physically” [19] | |
“…participants admitted having better moods and mental health status, given their self-contentment with the dietary choice.” [27] | ||
“I am better I see food a lot differently and I see it as nourishing and healthy … with the animals as well. I'm helping them yeah like I definitely see it as what I put in my body I am doing a good thing. When I eat vegan it makes me happy now because I'm like I feel good about what I'm eating yeah" [26] | ||
Establishing identity | Vegetarianism reflects me | “Veganism is like who I am now. It's like your morals, I am always thinking and it's like every decision” [26] |
“not eating meat is important to me and that is kind of a reflection of who I am” [22] | ||
“living as a vegetarian has its struggles to support such an identity when society may deem this lifestyle untraditional.” [29] | ||
Feeling proud of dietary choice | “I just have such a good feeling within myself for doing something right. . . I have met the goal that I have long been striving for. Finally, I am here and this is good for everyone. It makes me feel so good.” [30] | |
“It just makes me uncomfortable. But it’s so good!” [22] | ||
“… which was the first vegetarian wedding our guests had attended, creating a sense of pride that we maintained our beliefs.” [29] | ||
Transition to a healthy diet | Started cooking | “When I went vegan, it forced me to cook. And it forced me to like learn to make food and make everything myself.” [30] |
“Basically, I eat raw food; I don't eat anything pre-processed. I buy all the raw ingredients and I make whatever I'm making.” [25] | ||
“When I reached my teenage years, I began preparing my meat-free food” [29] | ||
Prefer healthy food | “Well, I just try to eat… calculate my protein intake per day, because it's like 20 grams that your body can at one time take, the rest will turn into fat. ... So, there is enough protein and… […]: I'm doing like really easy… really easy dishes. Like typical pasta, sauce, really easy, and fast. […] So, it's really easy.” [30] | |
“I ate McDonalds four times a week... Now like I look at food differently, and probably more like… I'm like ‘oh yeah that's junk food, that's healthy food, that's good for your soul, that's gonna make me feel better than eating a massive pile of junk food” [26] | ||
No longer obsessed with body image | “Prior to going vegan, I was pretty obsessed with food and my weight and my image. … I don't really think about it that much as long as it’s vegan. I have a way healthier relationship with my body and I never weigh myself.” [26] |
Experienced difficulties | Themes | Citations |
---|---|---|
Stereotypes about vegetarianism | Considered a restrictive diet | “there seemed to be this idea that vegans are people who eat like wholegrain [foods] and carrots.” [30] |
“they thought I was going to turn into this cruel stick and like not be able to eat anything but grass and lettuce.” [26] | ||
“I think many non-vegetarians want to become vegetarians but they think they might become weak and unhealthy if they avoid eating meat” [19] | ||
“Remarkably many people assume I can eat only salads, and that my options are vegetables alone.” [29] | ||
Considered a complex diet | I'm doing like really easy… really easy dishes. Like typical pasta, sauce, really easy, and fast. […] So, it's really easy.” [30] | |
I watched a 40-minute video clip and learned what I have to pay attention to. I just follow this advice, and everything is fine. There’s nothing complicated about it.” [30] | ||
Feeling disconnected due to resistance from non-vegetarians | Non-vegetarian ignorance of vegetarianism | ‘‘I learned along the way that the majority of people have no idea how the animal gets to that plate. They are just completely ignorant about that” [20] |
“I don’t know what to make for you” [24] | ||
“They always say, oh just eat it, it’s not a big deal, but they don’t understand what a big deal it really is to me.” [22] | ||
Non-vegetarians don't want to hear | “It can be really frustrating sitting at dinner with them while they are eating meat … I can find it frustrating like the ignorance … they do not want to learn. The information [on the ethical reasons behind veganism] is there and they do not want it and same for my family, I can feel really frustrated with them, I guess angry sometimes.” [26] | |
“I find more often than not, they don’t want to know. People just don’t want to know that what they are doing is wrong.” [20] | ||
“… when I start talking about it they just tell me to shut up.” [20] | ||
Non-vegetarians don't want change | “And they don’t want to have to change.” [20] | |
‘Yeah, what you are doing is a good thing, a positive thing, but I’m not about to give up my steak.’ [28] | ||
Set own boundaries by themselves | Hypersensitive to others’ perceptions | Vegetarians may become hypersensitive to others’ perceptions of them when discussing food, possibly causing them to refrain from speaking or acting as they normally would. [22] |
“The fear that others may worry about me, or that they may feel downright resentful that I choose not to eat their food, overcomes me whenever I see meat products presented or served.” [22] | ||
Amanda apparently does not like her vegan identity being raised about her food choices. These complaints reflect what they perceive as the microaggressions for being vegan, such that both Jessica and Amanda recall these instances and present them as problematic. [28] | ||
Assumes negative perceptions | Sadly, this perceived exclusion could prohibit a vegetarian/vegan from being open to the possibility that others might not actually feel inconvenienced by their food choices. [22] | |
Interestingly, she imagines that a vegan may be seen as forcing and judging others. These disclaimers reflect her anticipation of how vegans are generally perceived by omnivores. [28] | ||
Not open about themselves | When you decide to be vegan, you choose to in some ways marginalize yourself. … because there’s an assumption that you are not going to go along with it or you want to go along with it. [20] | |
George, a 44-year-old ethical vegan, did not like talking about his diet, even to me, with whom he’d agreed to do an interview. [25] | ||
Amanda apparently does not like her vegan identity being raised about her food choices. [28] | ||
Sense of moral superiority | “I think non-vegetarians are sly and hypocrite in nature because they don’t like to kill but they love to eat meat.” [19] | |
“I am better than others as I see what others do not see or, worse, see but fail to act on.” [24] | ||
Finally, as ethical vegans are concerned with animal rights and welfare, and concerned with issues beyond themselves, hey consider themselves to be more compassionate and humane. [21] | ||
Experiencing a dilemma | Conflicting of positions | “they do it to cover up their own guilt and their cognitive-dissonance … it [consuming and purchasing animal products] is not the right thing to do and they cannot really cope with it so instead they make fun [of veganism] and try to poke holes in the arguments of vegans.” [26] |
The act of becoming a vegetarian is an implicit criticism of an important aspect of the practices of non-vegetarians. The vegetarian’s experience of the presence of the absence of animals is a continual challenge to the carnist’s maintenance of the animal as absent referent. [24] | ||
Vegetarians, however, may think an abnormal amount about the origins of their food so much so that it makes the normal experience of meat as food an uncomfortable one. What is normal to most may be abnormal to a vegetarian. [22] | ||
Don't want to be someone who offends others | “I asked my boyfriend not to tell any of his friends that I was a vegan. I would rather fend for myself than have them worry about me all weekend.” [22] | |
“I guess I just feel like it’s such a personal choice. Like choosing to not eat meat is somehow condemning that they do eat meat, and that they’re a terrible person or I don’t agree with their choices, and that just opens up a whole can of worms.” [22] | ||
“once somebody feels like you’re saying that ‘they’re making a bad choice’ or ‘they’re hurting the animals’ or ‘you’re making a better choice than them’ … it doesn’t make you feel good.” [28] | ||
Difficulties in interpersonal relationships | Feeling left out | “Campus events involving food also left participants feeling excluded” [23] |
“The primary identification as vegetarian can lead to a sense of meaning and purpose or to a sense of marginalization and alienation.” [24] | ||
This experience of being left to traverse the rugged path towards each meal by yourself can produce a sense of loneliness. Sure, there are people around you, so you are not physically alone, but you are alone in your thoughts and feelings, which can make it difficult to feel connected to your surroundings. [22] | ||
Forced to eat meat | “Participants also reported that their non-vegetarian friends and relatives often urge them to eat meat to avoid falling sick” [19] | |
The boss invites his incipient vegetarian employee to lunch at the local seafood restaurant. “You are not going to eat the fish? That’s the specialty of the house!” “I don’t eat fish; I have nothing but respect for fish.” Such a response is not conducive to maintaining or furthering a good professional relationship, as it is necessarily at odds with others’ positions. [24] | ||
Experiencing negative attention | “I find the topic usually comes up when we are eating. It’s not really a table discussion because you are going to start grossing people out and so I try to deflect and a lot of times I say lets talk about this when we are done eating because I’m going to ruin your meal.” [20] | |
“My husband's father taunts him by placing meat on his plate, stating “I think you forgot the taste.” Such insults, even jokingly trigger bitter feelings and hostility towards others.” [29] | ||
“When my dad, I don’t know why he told people at his work, but he told a few people at his work that I was vegan and then a bunch of them were apologizing like ‘I’m so sorry” [28] | ||
Difficulty eating out | Lack of information about vegetarian food | “But a lot of times, they would say, “Well, we don't have the packagingfor this,” or they wouldfind the packaging, and it doesn't [sic] list the ingredients.” [23] |
“When I go in dining halls, I don't even bother asking, because I feel like if I were to say, ‘Does this have butter or milk in it?’ the staff would probably just be annoyed at me or simply not know. [23] | ||
“… as although all foods should be labelled, they rarely are. Asking the catering staff for the food ingredients is fruitless.” [29] | ||
Fewer options | “there weren't good vegetarian options. I ate a lot of carbs. Tofu was rarely available. I ate a lot of French fries." [23] | |
“Vegetarians are assumed to have fewer food options (especially when they go out to eat) and are now more attentive to the specific products they buy.” [27] | ||
“When dining out in Malta, vegetarian options were minimal; almost every dish included meat, even salads contained a form of meat, such as ham, chicken or bacon, so joining others to dine out was problematic without planning.” [29] |
Meanings | Themes | Citations |
---|---|---|
Attempting to break the stereotype of non-vegetarians | Providing a positive experience | “Which was the first vegetarian wedding our guests had attended, creating a sense of pride that we maintained our beliefs.” [29] |
“I helped him shop, then we went to have lunch together and I helped him to choose the right foods… His cholesterol levels had fallen lower than ever before, to a completely normal range” [30] | ||
“I think what worked really well for us was giving them something that they can do that would make a difference. [Inform them] that what they ate the next day would make a difference.” [20] | ||
Avoiding confrontation with non-vegetarians | Not forcing vegetarian diet | “I try to hit a middle ground. I sort of hint at some of the things: ‘‘If you knew…,’’ which gives them a chance to say ‘‘I want to know.’’ ‘‘But it doesn’t force it down their throats.’’ [20] |
“Food is so personal that you cannot force someone” [28] | ||
Not judging non-vegetarians | “I don’t judge them or say you have to be this or that.” [20] | |
‘I’m vegan just to let you know but I’m not going to force it on you’ I had to clarify it for her ‘I’m not going to judge you’ [28] | ||
“Being ‘approachable’ is presumably refraining from criticizing or preaching about the health, environ- mental or ethical aspects of meat eating.” [28] | ||
Avoiding being an extremist | “I do not want to be the crazy animal rights lady telling everyone that what they are doing is wrong.” [20] | |
Jessica’s solution, ‘just do your thing’, suggests that veganism is merely an individual choice we all make about eating, rather than part of a social movement for animal welfare. [28] | ||
Promoting education rather than confrontation | Promoting education over confrontation enables all involved in the conversation to ‘‘save face.’’ [20] | |
“I think what worked really well for us was giving them something that they can do that would make a difference.” [20] | ||
“It feels liberating to teach in something I believe and pass on information for others to make conscious choices, especially when most of them rarely meet vegetarians.” [29] | ||
Approaching with a gentle attitude | Leading by example | “Ah, this Timo guy changed so I can also change and why not and he seems to be so healthy so it can't be wrong” [30] |
Vegans should ‘lead by example and inform people when they want it’ [28] | ||
“Leading by example is the best way. The more and more people in the limelight who are successful and live that way, the more people will follow." [20] | ||
Waiting for the right time | ‘‘If somebody says to me, I’d like to find out more, then yeah, I’d gladly tell them. But you can’t change someone’s view over one dinner conversation, especially if they don’t want to hear about it to begin with.’’ [20] | |
“I think the best approach that I’ve seen is just leading by example and informing people when they want it” [28] | ||
Finding common interests | “You should be vegan for selfish reasons—to avoid all the shit that happens to you, as a meat eater. Don’t even think about the animals or their welfare—think about your own welfare… They should become vegan for no other reason [than health].” [20] | |
Comparing one’s dietary choices to other restrictive food diets (in the case of allergies or religion) may relieve a sense of loneliness a vegetarian feels on the outside of a culture for which meat is food. [22] | ||
Keeping one's control | Evidence-based approaching | Dan, specifically, tries to maintain control by presenting “facts” that are presumably more respected than “opinions.” [25] |
“Finding a strong link between the acquisition of antibiotic resistance and increased meat consumption gave reasonable justification to share my dietary choice to avoid meat and its by-products” [29] | ||
Solidify one's position | “I maintain a vegetarian belief through constant reminders of animal injustice through animal liberation groups and research in alternative food sources” [29] | |
The vegetarian w hose position is crystallized is comfortable saying to others, “I am a vegetarian” and, more, “I like being a vegetarian.” … she does so in the natural course of interaction, without the press of having a social agenda. [24] |
Title | |
---|---|
Lhamo [19] (2011) | Health, Ethics and GNH-a qualitative study of vegetarian motivations |
Greenebaum [20] (2012) | Managing impressions: “face-saving” strategies of vegetarians and vegans |
Greenebaum [21] (2012) | Veganism, identity and the quest for authenticity |
Edwards [22] (2013) | Living in a minority food culture: a phenomenological investigation of being vegetarian/vegan |
Parks and Evans [23] (2014) | Dietary identities in higher education |
Shapiro [24] (2015) | “I am a vegetarian”: reflections on a way of being |
Mycek [25] (2018) | Meatless meals and masculinity: how veg* men explain their plant-based diets |
Costa et al. [26] (2019) | “More than a diet”: a qualitative investigation of young vegan women's relationship to food |
Antonovici and Turliuc [27] (2020) | A qualitative study of health-related beliefs and practices among vegetarians |
Buttny and Kinefuchi [28] (2020) | Vegans’ problem stories: negotiating vegan identity in dealing with omnivores |
Delia [29] (2021) | A vegetarian educator in a meat obsessed country |
Aavik and Velgan [30] (2021) | Vegan men's food and health practices: a recipe for a more health-conscious masculinity? |
Section A |
Section B |
Section C |
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Are the results valid? |
What are the results? |
Will the results help locally? |
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Q1 | Q2 | Q3 | Q4 | Q5 | Q6 | Q7 | Q8 | Q9 | Q10 | |
Lhamo [19] (2011) | Yes | Yes | Can’t tell | Can’t tell | Can’t tell | Yes | Can’t tell | Can’t tell | Yes | Identifies health benefits and factors that are associated with vegetarianism |
Greenebaum [20] (2012) | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Adds to research on impression management, social interactions between ideologically opposed groups and food ethics |
Greenebaum [21] | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Examines norms and values of those identifying as vegan and discrepancies between motives and perspectives |
Edwards [22] (2013) | Yes | Yes | Yes | Can’t tell | Can’t tell | Can’t tell | Can’t tell | No | Yes | Provides information about the lived experiences and difficulties vegetarians and vegans face |
Parks and Evans [23] (2014) | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Can’t tell | Can’t tell | Yes | Yes | Suggests improvements and policies that may help accommodate vegan and vegetarian students in university settings |
Shapiro [24] (2015) | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Can’t tell | Can’t tell | Can’t tell | Can’t tell | Yes | May contribute to in-depth knowledge of vegetarian experiences |
Mycek [25] (2018) | Yes | Can’t tell | Can’t tell | Yes | Yes | Yes | Can’t tell | Yes | Yes | Provides foundation for future research on perspectives of vegetarians |
Costa et al. [26] (2019) | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Findings can contribute to psychosocial health of women while promoting the healing potential of veganism |
Antonovici and Turliuc [27] (2020) | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Can’t tell | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Provides insight into health-related beliefs and practices of a vegetarian diet |
Buttny and Kinefuchi [28] (2020) | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Can’t tell | Can’t tell | Yes | Yes | Provides first hand experiences of vegans as a minority in the dominant food culture |
Delia [29] (2021) | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Can’t tell | Can’t tell | Yes | Yes | Contributes to the gap of knowledge about vegetarianism in education |
Aavik and Velgan [30] (2021) | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Can’t tell | Yes | Yes | Yes | Findings contribute to existing knowledge of veganism from a male perspective, and may be transferable to the larger vegan population |
Q1. Was there a clear statement of the aims of the research? Q2. Is a qualitative methodology appropriate? Q3. Was the research design appropriate to address the aims of the research? Q4. Was the recruitment strategy appropriate to the aims of the research? Q5. Was the data collected in a way that addressed the research issue? Q6. Has the relationship between researcher and participants been adequately considered? Q7. Have ethical issues been taken into consideration? Q8. Was the data analysis sufficiently rigorous? Q9. Is there a clear statement of findings? Q10. How valuable is the research?